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Menstruum of feminist action, 1960s–1980s

2d-wave feminism was a menstruum of feminist activity that began in the early 1960s and lasted roughly two decades. It took place throughout the Western globe, and aimed to increment equality for women by edifice on previous feminist gains.

Whereas start-wave feminism focused mainly on suffrage and overturning legal obstacles to gender equality (e.m., voting rights and property rights), second-wave feminism broadened the debate to include a wider range of issues: sexuality, family unit, domesticity, the workplace, reproductive rights, de facto inequalities, and official legal inequalities.^[1] It was a motion that was focused on critiquing the patriarchal, or male-dominated, institutions and cultural practices throughout gild.^[2] 2nd-wave feminism besides drew attention to the issues of domestic violence and marital rape, created rape-crunch centers and women'southward shelters, and brought about changes in custody laws and divorce law. Feminist-owned bookstores, credit unions, and restaurants were amidst the key meeting spaces and economic engines of the movement.^[3]

The term "second-wave feminism" itself was brought into common parlance by announcer Martha Lear in a New York Times Mag article in March 1968 titled "The Second Feminist Wave: What exercise These Women Want?".^[4] She wrote, "Proponents call it the Second Feminist Wave, the get-go having ebbed afterwards the glorious victory of suffrage and disappeared, finally, into the swell sandbar of Togetherness."^{[4] : 323}

Many historians view the 2d-wave feminist era in America as catastrophe in the early 1980s with the intra-feminism disputes of the feminist sexual practice wars over issues such every bit sexuality and pornography, which ushered in the era of tertiary-wave feminism in the early 1990s.^[5]

Overview in the United States [edit]

The second moving ridge of feminism in the U.s. came as a delayed reaction against the renewed domesticity of women later on Earth War 2: the late 1940s post-war nail, which was an era characterized by an unprecedented economic growth, a babe smash, a move to family-oriented suburbs and the ideal of companionate marriages. During this time, women did not tend to seek employment due to their appointment with domestic and household duties, which was seen every bit their master duty but often left them isolated within the home and estranged from politics, economic science, and police force making. This life was clearly illustrated by the media of the fourth dimension; for example television shows such as Male parent Knows Best and Leave It to Beaver idealized domesticity.^{[half dozen]}

Some important events laid the background for the 2nd wave, specifically the piece of work of French writer Simone de Beauvoir in the 1940s where she examined the notion of women being perceived as "other" in the patriarchal order. Simone de Beauvoir is an existentialist meaning she believed in the existence of the individual person every bit a complimentary and responsible agent determining their own development through acts of the volition. She went on to conclude in her 1949 treatise The Second Sex activity that male-centered ideology was existence accepted as a norm and enforced by the ongoing development of myths, and that the fact that women are capable of getting pregnant, lactating, and menstruating is in no way a valid cause or explanation to place them as the "2d sexual activity".^[7] This book was translated from French to English (with some of its text excised) and published in America in 1953.^[8]

In 1960, the Food and Drug Administration canonical the combined oral contraceptive pill, which was made available in 1961.^[9] This fabricated it easier for women to have careers without having to leave due to unexpectedly condign significant. Information technology also meant young couples would not be routinely forced into unwanted marriages due to accidental pregnancies.

Though information technology is widely accustomed that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early on 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more hard to pinpoint and are often disputed. The movement is usually believed to take begun in 1963, when Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Committee on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.

External video
Prospects of Mankind with Eleanor Roosevelt; What Status For Women?, 59:07, 1962. Eleanor Roosevelt, chair of the Presidential Committee on the Status of Women, interviews President John F. Kennedy, Secretary of Labor Arthur Goldberg and others, Open Vault from WGBH[10]

The administration of President Kennedy fabricated women'due south rights a key issue of the New Frontier, and named women (such equally Esther Peterson) to many high-ranking posts in his administration.^[eleven] Kennedy also established a Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt and comprising cabinet officials (including Peterson and Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy), senators, representatives, businesspeople, psychologists, sociologists, professors, activists, and public servants.^[12] The study recommended changing this inequality by providing paid maternity leave, greater access to education, and aid with child intendance to women.^[13]

In that location were other actions past women in wider society, presaging their wider engagement in politics which would come with the second wave. In 1961, fifty,000 women in lx cities, mobilized by Women Strike for Peace, protested above ground testing of nuclear bombs and tainted milk.^{[14] [fifteen]}

In 1963, Betty Friedan, influenced by Simone de Beauvoir'south basis-breaking, feminist The Second Sexual activity, wrote the bestselling book The Feminine Mystique. Discussing primarily white women, she explicitly objected to how women were depicted in the mainstream media, and how placing them at home (as 'housewives') limited their possibilities and wasted potential. She had helped conduct a very important survey using her old classmates from Smith College. This survey revealed that the women who played a role at home and the workforce were more satisfied with their life compared with the women who stayed home. The women who stayed dwelling showed feelings of agitation and sadness. She concluded that many of these unhappy women had immersed themselves in the idea that they should not have any ambitions outside their dwelling house.^[13] Friedan described this as "The Problem That Has No Proper noun".^[16] The perfect nuclear family image depicted and strongly marketed at the time, she wrote, did not reflect happiness and was rather degrading for women.^[17] This volume is widely credited with having begun second-wave feminism in the United States.^[18]

The report from the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, forth with Friedan's book, spoke to the discontent of many women (especially housewives) and led to the formation of local, state, and federal government women'due south groups along with many independent feminist organizations. Friedan was referencing a "movement" equally early on as 1964.^[nineteen]

The motility grew with legal victories such every bit the Equal Pay Human action of 1963, Title 7 of the Civil Rights Deed of 1964, and the Griswold 5. Connecticut Supreme Courtroom ruling of 1965. In 1966 Friedan joined other women and men to found the National Organization for Women (Now); Friedan would be named as the organization's first president.^[20]

Despite the early successes At present achieved under Friedan's leadership, her determination to force per unit area the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to use Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Human action to enforce more job opportunities amid American women met with fierce opposition within the organization.^[20] Siding with arguments among several of the group's African-American members,^[20] many of NOW's leaders were convinced that the vast number of male African-Americans who lived below the poverty line were in need of more job opportunities than women within the eye and upper grade.^[21] Friedan stepped down equally president in 1969.^[22]

In 1963, freelance journalist Gloria Steinem gained widespread popularity among feminists after a diary she authored while working secret as a Playboy Bunny waitress at the Playboy Club was published equally a two-part feature in the May and June problems of Show.^[23] In her diary, Steinem alleged the club was mistreating its waitresses in order to gain male person customers and exploited the Playboy Bunnies every bit symbols of male chauvinism, noting that the order's manual instructed the Bunnies that "in that location are many pleasing ways they tin can utilise to stimulate the lodge's liquor volume".^[23] By 1968, Steinem had become arguably the nigh influential effigy in the motion and support for legalized abortion and federally funded twenty-four hours-cares had become the two leading objectives for feminists.^[24]

Amid the well-nigh meaning legal victories of the movement after the formation of NOW were a 1967 Executive Order extending full affirmative action rights to women, a 1968 EEOC determination ruling illegal sex-segregated aid wanted ads, Title IX and the Women's Educational Equity Act (1972 and 1974, respectively, educational equality), Title X (1970, health and family planning), the Equal Credit Opportunity Human activity (1974), the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, the outlawing of marital rape (although not outlawed in all states until 1993^[25]), and the legalization of no-fault divorce (although not legalized in all states until 2010^[26]), a 1975 law requiring the U.S. Military machine Academies to admit women, and many Supreme Court cases such as Reed five. Reed of 1971 and Roe five. Wade of 1973. Notwithstanding, the changing of social attitudes towards women is unremarkably considered the greatest success of the women's move. In Jan 2013, Usa Secretary of Defence force Leon Panetta appear that the longtime ban on women serving in United states of america military gainsay roles had been lifted.^[27]

In 2013, the United states Department of Defense (DoD) appear their plan to integrate women into all combat positions by 2016.^[27]

Second-moving ridge feminism as well affected other movements, such as the ceremonious rights move and the student'due south rights movement, as women sought equality inside them. In 1965 in "Sexual practice and Caste," a reworking of a memo they had written as staffers in ceremonious-rights organizations SNCC, Casey Hayden and Mary King proposed that "assumptions of male superiority are every bit widespread and deep rooted and every much as crippling to the woman as the assumptions of white supremacy are to the Negro," and that in the move, as in society, women can find themselves "caught upwards in a common-law caste system."^{[28] [29]}

In June 1967, Jo Freeman attended a "complimentary school" course on women at the University of Chicago led by Heather Booth^[30] and Naomi Weisstein. She invited them to organize a woman's workshop at the then-forthcoming National Conference of New Politics (NCNP), to be held over Labor 24-hour interval weekend 1967 in Chicago. At that conference, a adult female's caucus was formed (led past Freeman and Shulamith Firestone), who tried to present their ain demands to the plenary session.^[31] However, the women were told their resolution was not of import enough for a floor discussion, and when through threatening to tie up the convention with procedural motions they succeeded in having their statement tacked to the end of the agenda, it was never discussed.^[32] When the National Conference for New Politics (NCNP) Director William F. Pepper refused to recognize any of the women waiting to speak and instead called on someone to speak nigh American Indians, v women, including Firestone, rushed the podium demanding to know why.^[32] But Willam F. Pepper allegedly patted Firestone on the head and said, "Motion on little girl; we have more than important problems to talk nearly here than women's liberation", or mayhap, "Cool downward, niggling girl. Nosotros have more of import things to talk about than women'due south problems."^{[31] [32]} Freeman and Firestone called a meeting of the women who had been at the "free school" course and the women'south workshop at the briefing; this became the outset Chicago women'due south liberation grouping. It was known as the Westside group because it met weekly in Freeman's apartment on Chicago'due south w side. After a few months, Freeman started a newsletter which she called Voice of the women's liberation motility. It circulated all over the state (and in a few foreign countries), giving the new movement of women'due south liberation its name. Many of the women in the Westside grouping went on to start other feminist organizations, including the Chicago Women's Liberation Union.

In 1968, an SDS organizer at the University of Washington told a coming together almost white higher men working with poor white men, and "[h]e noted that sometimes after analyzing societal ills, the men shared leisure time past 'balling a chick together.' He pointed out that such activities did much to enhance the political consciousness of poor white youth. A adult female in the audience asked, 'And what did it do for the consciousness of the chick?'" (Hole, Judith, and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism, 1971, pg. 120).^[32] After the coming together, a scattering of women formed Seattle'due south first women's liberation group.^[32]

Some black feminists who were active in the early on second-wave feminism include ceremonious rights lawyer and author Florynce Kennedy, who co-authored 1 of the first books on abortion, 1971's Ballgame Rap; Cellestine Ware, of New York'south Stanton-Anthony Brigade; and Patricia Robinson. These women "tried to prove the connections between racism and male potency" in society.

The Indochinese Women'south Conferences (IWC) in Vancouver and Toronto in 1971, demonstrated the interest of a multitude of women's groups in the Vietnam Antiwar motion. Lesbian groups, women of color, and Vietnamese groups saw their interests mirrored in the anti-imperialist spirit of the conference. Although the IWC used a Canadian venue, membership was primarily composed of American groups.^[33]

The second wave of the feminist movement besides marks the emergence of women's studies as a legitimate field of study. In 1970, San Diego State University was the first university in the United States to offer a selection of women's studies courses.^[34]

The 1977 National Women's Conference in Houston, Texas, presented an opportunity for women's liberation groups to address a multitude of women's bug. At the conference, delegates from effectually the land gathered to create a National Plan of Action,^[35] which offered 26 planks on matters such as women's health, women's employment, and child care.^[36]

By the early 1980s, information technology was largely perceived that women had met their goals and succeeded in changing social attitudes towards gender roles, repealing oppressive laws that were based on sex activity, integrating the "boys' clubs" such equally military academies, the United states Armed Forces, NASA, unmarried-sex colleges, men'southward clubs, and the Supreme Court, and making gender discrimination illegal. Even so, in 1982, calculation the Equal Rights Subpoena to the United states of america Constitution failed, having been ratified by but 35 states, leaving it 3 states brusque of ratification.^[37]

Second-wave feminism was largely successful, with the failure of the ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment and Nixon's veto of the Comprehensive Child Evolution Bill of 1972 (which would have provided a multibillion-dollar national day care system) the just major legislative defeats. Efforts to ratify the Equal Rights Subpoena have continued. 10 states have adopted constitutions or constitutional amendments providing that equal rights under the constabulary shall not exist denied because of sex activity, and nearly of these provisions mirror the broad language of the Equal Rights Subpoena. Furthermore, many women'southward groups are still active and are major political forces. As of 2011^[update], more than women earn bachelor'south degrees than men,^[38] half of the Ivy League presidents are women, the numbers of women in authorities and traditionally male person-dominated fields take dramatically increased, and in 2009 the percent of women in the American workforce temporarily surpassed that of men.^[39] The salary of the average American woman has besides increased over time, although equally of 2008 information technology is only 77% of the average man'southward bacon, a phenomenon often referred to every bit the gender pay gap.^[40] Whether this is due to bigotry is very hotly disputed, however economists and sociologists take provided evidence to that event.^{[41] [42] [43]}

2d-wave feminism ended in the early 1980s with the feminist sex wars^[44] and was succeeded by third-wave feminism in the early 1990s.^[45]

Overview outside the United States [edit]

In 1967, at the International Alliance of Women Congress held in London, delegates were made aware of an initiative by the UN Commission on the Status of Women to study and evaluate the situation of women in their countries. Many organizations and NGOs like the Association of Business and Professional Women, Soroptimists Clubs, as well equally educational activity and nursing associations developed committees in response to the initiative to prepare evaluations on the atmospheric condition of women and urge their governments to institute National Commissions on the Status of Women.^[46]

In Turkey^{[47] [48]} and Israel,^[49] 2nd-wave feminism began in the 1980s.

Deutschland [edit]

Also see below in this article nether Film

During the 1960s several German language feminist groups were founded, which were characterized as the second wave.^[l]

Espana [edit]

The 1960s in Spain saw a generational shift in Spanish feminist in response to other changes in Castilian society. This included increased emigration and tourism (resulting in the spread of ideas from the rest of the world), greater opportunities in education and employment for women and major economical reforms.^[51] Feminism in the late Franco period and early transition period was not unified. Information technology had many different political dimensions, however, they all shared a belief in the need for greater equality for women in Kingdom of spain and a desire to defend the rights of women.^[52] Feminism moved from being about the individual to existence about the collective.^[53] It was during this period that second-wave feminism arrived in Espana.^{[51] [54]}

Second-wave Spanish feminism was about the struggle for the rights of women in the context of the dictatorship. PCE would beginning in 1965 to promote this movement with MDM, creating a feminist political orientation effectually building solidarity for women and profitable imprisoned political figures. MDM launched its movement in Madrid by establishing associations amidst the housewives of the Tetuán and Getafe in 1969. In 1972, Asociación Castellana de Amas de Casa y Consumidora was created to widen the group's ability to concenter members.^[51]

2nd-moving ridge feminism entered the Spanish comic community past the early 1970s. Information technology was manifested in Spanish comics in two means. The first was that information technology increased the number of women involved in comics product as writers and artists. The 2d was it transformed how female characters were portrayed, making women less passive and less likely to be purely sexual beings.^[55]

Sweden [edit]

See also Feminism in Sweden

In Sweden, second-wave feminism is generally associated with Group viii, a feminist organization which was founded past eight women in Stockholm in 1968.^[56]

The organization took up various feminist problems such as demands for expansions of kindergartens, half dozen-60 minutes working day, equal pay for equal piece of work and opposition to pornography. Initially based in Stockholm, local groups were founded throughout the country. The influence of Group 8 on feminism in Sweden is even so prevalent.

The Netherlands [edit]

In 1967, "The Discontent of Women", by Joke Kool-Smits, was published;^[57] the publication of this essay is often regarded as the starting time of second-wave feminism in the netherlands.^[58] In this essay, Smit describes the frustration of married women, saying they are fed upward being solely mothers and housewives.

Kickoff and consciousness raising [edit]

The beginnings of second-wave feminism can be studied past looking at the 2 branches that the movement formed in: the liberal feminists and the radical feminists. The liberal feminists, led by figures such every bit Betty Friedan and Gloria Steinem advocated for federal legislation to be passed that would promote and enhance the personal and professional lives of women.^[59] On the other hand, radical feminists, such equally Casey Hayden and Mary King, adopted the skills and lessons that they had learned from their piece of work with civil rights organizations such as the Students for a Democratic Gild and Educatee Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and created a platform to speak on the vehement and sexist issues women faced while working with the larger Civil Rights Movement.^[60]

The liberal feminist move [edit]

After beingness removed from the workforce, by either personal or social pressures, many women in the post-war America returned to the home or were placed into female only jobs in the service sector.^[61] Afterward the publication of Friedan'southward The Feminine Mystique in 1963, many women connected to the feeling of isolation and dissatisfaction that the book detailed. The book itself, notwithstanding, was non a call to action, but rather a plea for self-realization and consciousness raising among eye-class women throughout America.^[62] Many of these women organized to class the National Organization for Women in 1966, whose "Argument of Purpose" declared that the right women had to equality was one small part of the nationwide ceremonious rights revolution that was happening during the 1960s.^[63]

The radical feminist movement [edit]

Women who favoured radical feminism collectively spoke of beingness forced to remain silent and obedient to male leaders in New Left organizations. They spoke out about how they were not only told to exercise clerical work such as stuffing envelopes and typing speeches, but there was too an expectation for them to sleep with the male activists that they worked with.^[64] While these acts of sexual harassment took place, the young women were neglected their right to accept their own needs and desires recognized past their male cohorts.^[64] Many radical feminists had learned from these organizations how to think radically about their cocky-worth and importance, and applied these lessons in the relationships they had with each other.^[65]

Businesses [edit]

Feminist activists accept established a range of feminist businesses, including women's bookstores, feminist credit unions, feminist presses, feminist mail service-society catalogs, feminist restaurants, and feminist record labels. These businesses flourished every bit part of the second and third waves of feminism in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.^{[66] [67]}

In West Berlin sixteen projects emerged within three years (1974–76)^[68] all without country funding (except the women'south shelter). Many of those new concepts the social economy picked up later, some are still run autonomously today.^{[69] [70]}

Music and popular culture [edit]

Second-moving ridge feminists viewed popular civilisation equally sexist, and created pop civilization of their own to counteract this. "One project of second moving ridge feminism was to create 'positive' images of women, to human action every bit a counterweight to the dominant images circulating in pop civilization and to raise women's consciousness of their oppressions."^[71]

"I Am Woman" [edit]

Australian creative person Helen Reddy'south vocal "I Am Adult female" played a large role in pop culture and became a feminist anthem; Reddy came to be known as a "feminist poster daughter" or a "feminist icon".^[71] Reddy told interviewers that the song was a "song of pride near being a woman".^[72] The song was released in 1972. A few weeks later "I Am Woman" entered the charts, radio stations refused to play it. Some music critics and radio stations believed the vocal represented "all that is silly in the Women's Lib Movement".^[73] Helen Reddy then began performing the vocal on numerous television variety shows. As the vocal gained popularity, women began calling radio stations and requesting to hear "I Am Woman" played. The song re-entered the charts and reached number one in December 1972.^{[74] [71] [75] [76] [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82]} "I Am Woman" also became a protestation song that women sang at feminist rallies and protests.^[83]

Olivia Records [edit]

In 1973, a group of v feminists created the first women's endemic-and-operated record characterization, called Olivia Records.^[84] They created the record label considering they were frustrated that major labels were wearisome to add female artists to their rosters. One of Olivia's founders, Judy Dlugacz, said that, "It was a chance to create opportunities for women artists within an industry which at that time had few."^[85] Initially, they had a budget of $4,000, and relied on donations to keep Olivia Records alive. With these donations, Olivia Records created their commencement LP, an album of feminist songs entitled I Know You lot Know. ^[86] The record characterization originally relied on volunteers and feminist bookstores to distribute their records, but subsequently a few years their records began to exist sold in mainstream tape stores.^[85]

Olivia Records was then successful that the visitor relocated from Washington, D.C., to Los Angeles in 1975.^[86] Olivia Records released several records and albums, and their popularity grew.^[84] As their popularity grew, an culling, specialized music industry grew around it. This type of music was initially referred to every bit "lesbian music" but came to exist known equally "women'due south music".^[84] Nevertheless, although Olivia Records was initially meant for women, in the 1980s information technology tried to move abroad from that stereotype and encouraged men to listen to their music as well.^[85]

Women's music [edit]

Women's music consisted of female musicians combined music with politics to limited feminist ideals.^[87] Cities throughout the United states began to hold Women's Music Festivals, all consisting of female person artists singing their own songs near personal experiences.^[88] The first Women's Music Festival was held in 1974 at the University of Illinois.^[88] In 1979, the Michigan Womyn's Music Festival attracted 10,000 women from across America.^[88] These festivals encouraged already-famous female person singers, such as Laura Nyro and Ellen McIllwaine, to begin writing and producing their own songs instead of going through a major tape label.^[88] Many women began performing hard rock music, a traditionally male-dominated genre. Ane of the well-nigh successful examples included the sisters Ann and Nancy Wilson, who formed the famous difficult rock band Heart.^[xiii]

Film [edit]

German-speaking Europe [edit]

The Deutsche Moving picture- und Fernsehakademie Berlin gave women a chance in film in Germany: from 1968 on one third of the students were female. Some of them - pioneers of the women's movement - produced feminist feature films: Helke Sander in 1971 produced "Eine Prämie für Irene" [A Reward for Irene], and Cristina Perincioli (although she was Swiss not German) in 1971 produced "Für Frauen – 1.Kap" [For Women – 1st Chapter].

In West Germany Helma Sanders-Brahms and Claudia von Alemann produced feminist documentaries from 1970 on.

In 1973 Claudia von Alemann and Helke Sander organized the 1. Internationale Frauen-Filmseminar in Berlin.

In 1974 Helke Sander founded the journal Frauen und Film – a offset feminist filmjournal, which she edited until 1981.

In the 1970s in West Deutschland, women directors produced a whole serial of Frauenfilm - films focusing on women's personal emancipation. In the 1980s the Goethe Institute brought a collection of German women's films in every corner of the world. "...here the term 'feminist filmmaking' does function to point to a filmmaking exercise defining itself outside the masculine mirror. German feminism is 1 of the near active women's movements in Europe. It has gained admission to television; engendered a spectrum of journals, a publishing business firm and a summer women'south university in Berlin; inspired a whole grouping of filmmakers; ..." writes Marc Silberman in Jump Cut.^[89] But virtually of the women filmmakers did non run across themselves every bit feminists, except Helke Sander^[90] and Cristina Perincioli. Perincioli stated in an interview: "Fight kickoff ... before making beautiful art".^[91] There, she explains how she develops and shoots the motion-picture show together with the women concerned: saleswomen, battered wives - and why she prefers to work with an all female squad. Camera women were notwithstanding and then rare in the 1970 that she had to find them in Denmark and France. Working with an all women moving-picture show coiffure Perincioli encouraged women to learn these then male person dominated professions.

Association of women filmworkers of Federal republic of germany [edit]

In 1979, German language women filmworkers formed the Clan of women filmworkers^[92] which was active for a few years. In 2014, a new try with Proquote Picture show (then as Proquote Regie^[93]) turned out to be successful and effective. A report by the Academy of Rostock shows that 42% of the graduates of film schools are female, merely but 22% of the German feature films are staged past a woman director and are commonly financially worse equipped. Similarly, women are disadvantaged in the other male-dominated film trades, where men fifty-fifty without education are preferred to the female graduates.^[94] The initiative points out that the introduction of a quota system in Sweden has brought the proportion of women in key positions in picture production effectually the aforementioned as the population share.^[95] Every bit a result, the Swedish initiative calls as well for a parity of motion picture funding bodies and the implementation of a gradual women'due south quota for the allocation of motion picture and idiot box directing jobs in social club to achieve a gender-equitable distribution. This should reflect the plurality of a modern lodge, because multifariousness can not be guaranteed if more 80% of all films are produced by men. ProQuote Picture is the third initiative with which women with a high share in their industry are fighting for more female executives and financial resources (encounter Pro Quote Medien (2012) and Quote Medizin).

Us [edit]

In the US, both the creation and subjects of motion pictures began to reflect second-wave feminist ideals,^[96] leading to the development of feminist motion-picture show theory. In the belatedly 1970s and early on 1980s, female person filmmakers that were involved in part of the new wave of feminist movie included Joan Micklin Silver (Between the Lines), Claudia Weill (Girlfriends), Stephanie Rothman, and Susan Seidelman (Smithereens, Badly Seeking Susan).^{[97] [98]} Other notable films that explored feminist subject matters that were made at this fourth dimension include the film adaptation of Lois Gould's novel Such Good Friends and Rosemary's Babe.^[99]

The documentary She's Beautiful When She's Aroused was the first documentary film to cover feminism'south 2nd wave.^[100]

[edit]

Use of birth control [edit]

Finding a need to talk about the advantage of the Nutrient and Drug Administration passing their approval for the utilise of birth control in 1960, liberal feminists took action in creating panels and workshops with the goal to promote conscious raising amongst sexually active women. These workshops besides brought attending to bug such every bit venereal diseases and safe abortion.^[101] Radical feminists also joined this push to enhance awareness among sexually active women. While supporting the "Free Love Movement" of the late 1960s and early 1970s, young women on college campuses distributed pamphlets on birth control, sexual diseases, ballgame, and cohabitation.^[102]

While white women were concerned with obtaining birth control for all, women of color were at risk of sterilization because of these same medical and social advances: "Native American, African American, and Latina groups documented and publicized sterilization abuses in their communities in the 1960s and 70s, showing that women had been sterilized without their knowledge or consent... In the 1970s, a group of women... founded the Committee to End Sterilization Abuse (CESA) to stop this racist population control policy begun by the federal government in the 1940s – a policy that had resulted in the sterilization of over one-third of all women of child-bearing age in Puerto Rico."^[103] The use of forced sterilization disproportionately affected women of colour and women from lower socioeconomic statuses. Sterilization was often done under the ideology of eugenics. Thirty states within the United states of america authorized legal sterilizations under eugenic sciences.^[104]

Domestic violence and sexual harassment [edit]

The second-wave feminist movement besides took a strong opinion against physical violence and sexual assault in both the abode and the workplace. In 1968, At present successfully lobbied the Equal Employment Opportunity Committee to laissez passer an subpoena to Title VII of the Civil Rights Deed of 1964, which prevented discrimination based on sex activity in the workplace.^[105] This attending to women'due south rights in the workplace also prompted the EEOC to add sexual harassment to its "Guidelines on Discrimination", therefore giving women the right to written report their bosses and coworkers for acts of sexual assault.

Domestic violence, such as battery and rape, were rampant in post-war America. Married women were often abused by their husbands, and as belatedly equally 1975 domestic battery and rape were both socially adequate and legal every bit women were seen to be the possessions of their husbands.^[106] Considering of activists in the second-wave feminist move, and the local law enforcement agencies that they worked with, by 1982 iii hundred shelters and forty-8 state coalitions had been established to provide protection and services for women who had been abused past male person figures in their lives.^[107]

Didactics [edit]

Title IX [edit]

Coeducation [edit]

One fence which developed in the United states of america during this time period revolved around the question of coeducation. Most men'southward colleges in the United states of america adopted coeducation, often by merging with women's colleges. In addition, some women's colleges adopted coeducation, while others maintained a single-sex student torso.

Seven Sisters Colleges [edit]

Two of the Seven Sister colleges fabricated transitions during and after the 1960s. The outset, Radcliffe College, merged with Harvard University. Offset in 1963, students at Radcliffe received Harvard diplomas signed past the presidents of Radcliffe and Harvard and articulation commencement exercises began in 1970. The same year, several Harvard and Radcliffe dormitories began swapping students experimentally and in 1972 total co-residence was instituted. The departments of athletics of both schools merged soon thereafter. In 1977, Harvard and Radcliffe signed an understanding which put undergraduate women entirely in Harvard College. In 1999, Radcliffe Higher was dissolved and Harvard University assumed full responsibleness over the affairs of female person undergraduates. Radcliffe is at present the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study in Women's Studies at Harvard University.

The second, Vassar College, declined an offer to merge with Yale University and instead became coeducational in 1969.

The remaining Seven Sisters decided against coeducation. Mount Holyoke Higher engaged in a lengthy debate under the presidency of David Truman over the upshot of coeducation. On November 6, 1971, "after reviewing an exhaustive written report on coeducation, the lath of trustees decided unanimously that Mount Holyoke should remain a women's higher, and a group of faculty was charged with recommending curricular changes that would support the decision."^[108] Smith College besides made a similar conclusion in 1971.^[109]

In 1969, Bryn Mawr Higher and Haverford College (then all male) developed a arrangement of sharing residential colleges. When Haverford became coeducational in 1980, Bryn Mawr discussed the maybe of coeducation also, but decided against it.^[110] In 1983, Columbia University began admitting women after a decade of failed negotiations with Barnard College for a merger forth the lines of Harvard and Radcliffe (Barnard has been affiliated with Columbia since 1900, simply it continues to be independently governed). Wellesley College besides decided against coeducation during this time.

Mississippi University for Women [edit]

In 1982, in a 5–4 decision, the U.Southward. Supreme Court ruled in Mississippi University for Women 5. Hogan that the Mississippi Academy for Women would be in violation of the Fourteenth Subpoena's Equal Protection Clause if it denied admission to its nursing program on the basis of gender. Mississippi University for Women, the beginning public or government establishment for women in the United states of america, inverse its admissions policies and became coeducational subsequently the ruling.^[111]

In what was her first opinion written for the Supreme Court, Justice Sandra Day O'Connor stated, "In limited circumstances, a gender-based classification favoring 1 sexual activity can be justified if information technology intentionally and direct assists members of the sex activity that is disproportionately burdened." She went on to betoken out that in that location are a disproportionate number of women who are nurses, and that denying admission to men "lends credibility to the old view that women, not men, should become nurses, and makes the assumption that nursing is a field for women a self-fulfilling prophecy".^[112]

In the dissenting opinions, Justices Harry A. Blackmun, Warren East. Burger, Lewis F. Powell, Jr., and William H. Rehnquist suggested that the upshot of this ruling would be the elimination of publicly supported single-sexual activity educational opportunities. This proposition has proven to be accurate as there are no public women's colleges in the United States today and, as a result of United States v. Virginia, the concluding all-male public university in the The states, Virginia Military Institute, was required to acknowledge women. The ruling did not require the university to change its name to reverberate its coeducational condition and it continues a tradition of academic and leadership evolution for women by providing liberal arts and professional instruction to women and men.^[113]

Mills College [edit]

On May three, 1990, the Trustees of Mills Higher appear that they had voted to admit male students.^[114] This conclusion led to a 2-week educatee and staff strike, accompanied by numerous displays of nonviolent protests by the students.^{[115] [116]} At one signal, nearly 300 students blockaded the administrative offices and boycotted classes.^[117] On May 18, the Trustees met once again to reconsider the decision,^[118] leading finally to a reversal of the vote.^[119]

Other colleges [edit]

Sarah Lawrence Higher declined an offer to merge with Princeton University, becoming coeducational in 1969.^[120] Connecticut College also adopted coeducation during the late 1960s. Wells Higher, previously with a educatee trunk of women only, became co-educational in 2005. Douglass College, part of Rutgers Academy, was the final publicly funded women's only college until 2007 when it became coed.

Criticism [edit]

Some black and/or working class and poor women felt alienated by the main planks of the 2d-moving ridge feminist movement, which largely advocated women's right to work outside the home and expansion of reproductive rights. Women of colour and poor white women in the U.South. had been working outside of the home in blue-neckband and service jobs for generations. Additionally, Angela Davis wrote that while Afro-American women and white women were subjected to multiple unwilled pregnancies and had to clandestinely abort, Afro-American women were as well suffering from compulsory sterilization programs that were not widely included in dialogue about reproductive justice.

Commencement in the late 20th century, numerous feminist scholars such as Audre Lorde^[121] and Winona LaDuke^[122] critiqued the second wave in the United States as reducing feminist activeness into a homogenized and whitewashed chronology of feminist history that ignores the voices and contributions of many women of color, working-class women, and LGBT women.^{[123] [124]}

The 2nd-moving ridge feminist move in the U.s. has been criticized for failing to acknowledge the struggles of women of color, and their voices were often silenced or ignored past white feminists.^{[125] [123]} It has been suggested that the dominant historical narratives of the feminist move focuses on white, East Coast, and predominantly centre-class women and women's consciousness-raising groups, excluding the experiences and contributions of lesbians, women of colour, and working-grade and lower-class women.^[44] Chela Sandoval chosen the dominant narratives of the women'south liberation movement "hegemonic feminism" because information technology essentializes the feminist historiography to an sectional population of women, which assumes that all women feel the aforementioned oppressions as the white, East Coast, and predominantly middle-class women.^[126] This restricting view purportedly ignored the oppressions women face determined by their race, class, and sexuality, and gave rise to women-of-color feminisms that separated from the women's liberation movement, such every bit Blackness feminism, Africana womanism, and the Hijas de Cuauhtémoc that emerged at California Country University, Long Beach, which was founded by Anna Nieto-Gómez, due to the Chicano Motility'due south sexism.^{[127] [128] [129]} Kimberlé Crenshaw coined the term "intersectionality" in 1989 in response to the white, middle-class views that dominated 2nd-wave feminism. Intersectionality describes the way systems of oppression (i.e. sexism, racism) have multiplicative, not additive, effects, on those who are multiply marginalized. It has become a core tenet of third-wave feminism.^[130]

Many feminist scholars meet the generational sectionalization of the second wave as problematic.^[131] Second wavers are typically essentialized as the Baby Boomer generation, when in actuality many feminist leaders of the second wave were born earlier World War II ended. This generational essentialism homogenizes the grouping that belongs to the moving ridge and asserts that every person role of a certain demographic generation shared the same ideologies, because ideological differences were considered to be generational differences.^[132]

Feminist scholars, particularly those from the late 20th and early 21st centuries to the present twenty-four hour period, have revisited diverse writings,^[44] oral histories, artwork, and artifacts of women of color, working-class women, and lesbians during the early 1960s to the early 1980s to decenter what they view as the dominant historical narratives of the 2d moving ridge of the women's liberation move, allowing the scope of the historical understanding of feminist consciousness to expand and transform. By recovering histories that they believe accept been erased and overlooked, these scholars purport to establish what Maylei Blackwell termed "retrofitted memory".^[133] Blackwell describes this as a form of "countermemory" that creates a transformative and fluid "alternative archive" and space for women'south feminist consciousness within "hegemonic narratives".^[133] For Blackwell, looking within the gaps and crevices of the 2nd wave allows fragments of historical knowledge and memory to exist discovered, and new historical feminist subjects as well as new perspectives well-nigh the past to sally, forcing existing dominant histories that claim to represent a universal experience to be decentered and refocused.^[134]

Run into also [edit]

• American philosophy
• Black Feminism
• Ceremonious rights movements
• Counterculture of the 1960s
• Feminism in 1950s Britain
• Feminist movements and ideologies
• Commencement-moving ridge feminism
• Goddess move
• History of feminism
• List of feminists
• List of women's rights activists
• Pro-life feminism
• Radical Feminism
• Sexual revolution
• Third-wave feminism
• Timeline of reproductive rights legislation
• Timeline of 2d-wave feminism
• Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)
• Timeline of women's suffrage
• Feminism and racism

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Further reading [edit]

• Boxer, Marilyn J. and Jean H. Quataert, eds. Connecting Spheres: European Women in a Globalizing Earth, 1500 to the Nowadays (2000)
• Cott, Nancy. No Small Courage: A History of Women in the United States (2004)
• Freedman, Estelle B. No Turning Dorsum: The History of Feminism and the Hereafter of Women (2003)
• Harnois, Catherine (2008). "Re-presenting feminisms: Past, present, and hereafter". NWSA Periodical. Johns Hopkins University Press. 20 (1): 120–145. JSTOR 40071255.
• MacLean, Nancy. The American Women's Movement, 1945–2000: A Cursory History with Documents (2008)
• Offen, Karen; Pierson, Ruth Roach; and Rendall, Jane, eds. Writing Women's History: International Perspectives (1991)
• Prentice, Alison and Trofimenkoff, Susan Mann, eds. The Neglected Majority: Essays in Canadian Women'due south History (2 vol 1985)
• Ramusack, Barbara Due north., and Sharon Sievers, eds. Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History (1999)
• Rosen, Ruth. The Globe Split Open: How the Mod Women's Movement Changed America (2nd ed. 2006)
• Roth, Benita. Separate Roads to Feminism: Blackness, Chicana, and White Feminist Movements in America'south 2d Wave. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press (2004)
• Stansell, Christine. The Feminist Hope: 1792 to the Present (2010)
• Thébaud, Françoise (Spring 2007). "Writing women'south and gender history in France: A national narrative?". Journal of Women'southward History. nineteen (1): 167–172. doi:x.1353/jowh.2007.0026. S2CID 145711786.
• Zophy, Angela Howard, ed. Handbook of American Women'due south History (second ed. 2000)

External links [edit]

• Media related to Second-wave feminism at Wikimedia Commons

thomasrepostity.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-wave_feminism

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